11.4 Types of Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanoes produce a variety of materials when they erupt. The characteristics of the eruptions themselves also vary from one volcano to the next, and sometimes from one eruption to the next for the same volcano. Eruptions are classified according how explosive they are, and the height of their eruption column– how high they blast material into the air.

Both the explosiveness of an eruption and the height of the eruption column are related in part to the composition of magma and the amount of gas it contains. In particular, magmas with more silica erupt more explosively. The higher the silica content, the greater the viscosity of the magma. This means more pressure can build up before the magma is forced out of the volcano. Magma with more silica also tends to contain more dissolved gas. The gas helps to propel magma out of the volcano, in the same way that the bubbles in a shaken bottle of pop cause the pop to foam out when the lid is removed.

There are four types of eruptions with properties determined mostly by the silica content of magma, and the amount of gas it contains. In order of increasing explosiveness, these are Hawai’ian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, and Plinian eruptions. Any composition of magma can have an explosive eruption if the magma suddenly encounters water. Hot magma contacting groundwater or seawater causes the water to flash to steam. Explosive eruptions driven by water are called hydrovolcanic (or phreatic) eruptions.

Hawai‘ian Eruptions

Hawai‘ian eruptions are named after the characteristic eruptions of volcanoes of the Hawai‘ian islands. Hawai‘ian eruptions are effusive (flowing) rather than explosive because they erupt low-viscosity basaltic lava. Hawai‘ian eruptions form shield volcanoes and can also take the form of fissure eruptions. Fissure eruptions occur when lava erupts from long cracks in the ground rather than from a central vent.

Figure 11.26 shows examples from two eruptions on of Hawai‘i. In the upper left and right are images from the November 1959 eruption of Kīlauea Iki Crater. The upper left shows a fissure eruption and effusive flow of lava. Burning trees appear as bright spots toward the bottom of the photo. Figure 11.26 (right) shows a lava fountain reaching 425 m above Kīlauea Iki Crater. U. S. Geological Survey scientists reported that volcanic bombs up to 60 cm across smashed the guard rail and dented the asphalt on the road. Figure 11.26 (lower left) shows Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) scientists making a quick getaway, with lava fountains from Mauna Loa Volcano in the background.

Hawaiian eruptions. Top left: Fissure eruption at Kīlauea Iki Crater in November of 1959. Bottom left: Lava fountains from an eruption of Mauna Loa Volcano in 1984. Right: Lava fountain from Kīlauea Iki Crater eruption in November of 1959.
Figure 11.26 Hawai‘ian eruptions. Top left: Fissure eruption at Kīlauea Iki Crater in November of 1959. Bottom left: Lava fountains from an eruption of Mauna Loa Volcano in 1984. Right: Lava fountain from Kīlauea Iki Crater eruption in November of 1959. Sources: Top left- U. S. Geological Survey (1959) Public Domain. view source Bottom left: R. B. Moore, U. S. Geological Survey (1984) Public Domain. view source Right- U. S. Geological Survey (1959) Public Domain. view source    

The photographs of the Kīlauea Iki Crater and Mauna Loa Volcano eruptions make the point that while Hawai‘ian eruptions are considered “gentle” eruptions, this is a relative term. “Gentle” eruptions range from lava flows that can be safely sampled by trained personnel, as in Figure 11.5, to lava fountains that soar hundreds of metres above the tree tops and rain large and dangerous rocks upon the surroundings.

Strombolian Eruptions

Strombolian eruptions, named for Mt. Stromboli in Italy, occur when basaltic lava has higher viscosity and higher gas content. The sticky lava is ejected in loud, violent, but short-lived spattery eruptions. Clumps of gas-rich lava thrown 10s to 100s of metres in the air accumulate as scoria in a pile around the vent, forming cinder cones. Figure 11.27 shows a strombolian eruption in the crater of Mt. Etna. A smaller cinder cone is forming around the vent as lava sputters out of it.

Strombolian eruption of Mt. Etna. Sputtering lava forms a smaller cinder cone around a vent within the crater of Etna.
Figure 11.27 Strombolian eruption of Mt. Etna. Sputtering lava forms a smaller cinder cone around a vent within the crater of Etna. Source: Karla Panchuk (2017) CC BY-SA 4.0. Photograph- Robin Wylie (2012) CC BY 2.0. view source Click the image for more attributions.  

Vulcanian Eruptions

Vulcanian eruptions get their name from the volcanic Italian island of Vulcano, which itself takes the name of the Roman god of fire, Vulcan. In Roman mythology, Vulcan was the maker of armour and weaponry for the gods, and volcanic eruptions were attributed to him working in his forge.

Vulcanian eruptions are far more explosive than Strombolian eruptions, and can blast tephra and gas to a height of 5 to 10 km. The explosiveness is related to a build-up of pressure as the higher viscosity of intermediate silica content lava restricts the escape of gas. Vulcanian eruptions produce large quantities of ash in addition to blocks and bombs.

The Vulcanian eruption of Mt. Pelée on the island of Martinique in 1902 resulted in the first detailed documentation by geologists of a devastating phenomenon that is now referred to as a pyroclastic flow (Figure 11.28). Volcanic debris from the collapse of a lava dome on Mt. Pelée combined with hot gas to form a searing avalanche that raced down the mountain, over the city of St. Pierre, and into the harbour.

A series of photos taken by Alfred Lacroix during the eruption of Mt. Pelée on May 8, 1902 showing the development of the pyroclastic flow that destroyed the city of St. Pierre and nearly 30,000 inhabitants.
Figure 11.28 A series of photos taken by Alfred Lacroix during the eruption of Mt. Pelée on May 8, 1902 showing the development of the pyroclastic flow that destroyed the city of St. Pierre and nearly 30,000 inhabitants. Source: Karla Panchuk (2017) CC BY 4.0. Photograph: Alfred Lacroix (1902) Public Domain. view original Click the image for more attributions.

The French geologist Alfred Lacroix described what he saw as a “nuée ardente,” or thick fiery cloud. The following first-hand account was published in Cosmopolitan Magazine in July of 1902, attributed to Ellery S. Scott, a sailor on the steamship Roraima:

“In idle interest, I turned my glass toward Mont Pelee. It was at that very moment that the whole top of the mountain seemed blown into the air. The sound that fol­lowed was deafening. A great mass of flames, seemingly a mile in diameter, with twisting giant wreaths of smoke, rolled thousands of feet into the air, and then overbalanced and came rolling down the seamed and cracked sides of the mountain.  Foot hills were overflowed by the onrush­ing mass. It was not mere flame and smoke. It was molten lava, giant blocks of stone and a hail of smaller stones, with a mass of scalding mud intermingled.
For one brief moment I saw the city of St. Pierre before me. Then it was blotted out by the overwhelming flood. There was no time for the people to flee. They had not even time to pray…. I had called to Carpenter Benson to start the windlass, but before he could move, the “Roraima” rolled almost on her port beam-ends, and then as suddenly went to starboard. The funnel, masts and boats went by the board in an instant. The decks were swept clean. The hatches were staved in. The next instant a hail of fire and red-hot stones was upon the ship. Then came the scalding mud. The saloon was ablaze. The ship seemed doomed. Men were struck down all around me by flaming masses of lava. From bright sun­light the air became dense as midnight. The smoke that rolled down from the cra­ter’s mouth had blotted the sun from our vision.”
Scott’s account vividly describes of the speed of the pyroclastic flow. In some cases, pyroclastic flows travel at speeds greater than 700 km/h. They are able to travel rapidly because they behave like a fluid, and can also ride on a cushion of hot gas. Scott says the city was “blotted out by a flood,” yet the lower parts of buildings remained (Figure 11.29), and human remains were found in streets and homes where they had fallen. The ruins of St. Pierre look as though the top of the city were shaved off, and that is effectively what happened as the pyroclastic flow rushed across it, buoyed by gas.
Two stereographs of the ruins of St. Pierre, published in 1902. Stereographs are viewed with a stereoscope to make an image appear three dimensional. Top- "St. Pierre, 'the city of dead,' Mt. Pelee smoking, Martinique"; Bottom- "Overlooking the mud-filled Roxelane River bed, and ash-covered ruins, to Mont Pelée, St. Pierre, Martinique."
Figure 11.29 Two stereographs of the ruins of St. Pierre, published in 1902. Stereographs are viewed with a stereoscope to make an image appear three dimensional. Top- “St. Pierre, ‘the city of dead,’ Mt. Pelee smoking, Martinique”; Bottom- “Overlooking the mud-filled Roxelane River bed, and ash-covered ruins, to Mont Pelée, St. Pierre, Martinique.” Source: Top- Boston Public Library (2013) CC BY 2.0 view source; Bottom- Boston Public Library (2013) CC BY 2.0 view source
The vast majority of fatalities from the eruption were caused by the heat of pyroclastic flow. Examination of the ruins of St. Pierre revealed that glass had melted, but copper had not, putting the temperature at between 700 ºC and 1000 ºC (1292 ºF to 1832 ºF).

Plinian Eruptions

Plinian eruptions are explosive eruptions of intermediate to felsic lava, and can form eruptive columns up to 45 km high. The origin of the name is the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE, which buried the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The Roman admiral Gaius Plinius Secundus, also known as Pliny the Elder, attempted a rescue mission when he saw the column of ash and debris above Vesuvius, but died of unknown causes without being able to reach Herculaneum.

A more recent Plinian eruption was that of Mt. Redoubt on April 21, 1990, shown in Figure 11.30. Pyroclastic flows resulted, as did lahars, landslides that formed when glaciers melted and turned volcanic ash into mud. The shape of the eruptive column, with parts of the column appearing to spread out in flat layers at different levels, reflects differences in atmospheric characteristics.

Plinian eruption of Mt. Redoubt in Alaska on April 21, 1990.
Figure 11.30 Plinian eruption of Mt. Redoubt in Alaska on April 21, 1990. Source: Karla Panchuk (2017) CC BY 4.0. Photograph: R. Clucas, U. S. Geological Survey (1990) Public Domain. view source Click the image for more attributions.

Hydrovolcanic (Phreatic) Eruptions

Hydrovolcanic eruptions can be far more explosive than Plinian eruptions. They occur when water in the form of groundwater, seawater, or even melting glacial ice or snow comes into contact with magma. Heat from the magma changes water suddenly to steam, which can expand to more than a thousand times the original volume of water. The sudden expansion results in an explosive force that can blast a volcano to pieces and create large amounts of volcanic ash.

In April of 2010, activity by the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull (Figure 11.31) melted the glacier above it, releasing large quantities of water and triggering a hydrovolcanic eruption. Ash rose in a plume 10 km high, and was blown westward and into the skies over Europe. Volcanic ash can damage or destroy aircraft engines, so the precaution was taken to prohibit air travel for a 5-day period. The enormous economic impact of stopping flights has led to numerous studies about the best way to deal with similar events with volcanic ash in the future.

Figure 11-31 Hydrovolcanic eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in April of 2010. Left- Eruptive column with volcanic lightning. Volcanic lightning is caused by the static electricity generated by volcanic ash particles rubbing together. Right- Another view of the ash cloud, with westward winds carrying ash toward Europe where it would disrupt air traffic.
Figure 11.31 Hydrovolcanic eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in April of 2010. Left- Eruptive column with volcanic lightning. Volcanic lightning is caused by the static electricity generated by volcanic ash particles rubbing together. Right- Another view of the ash cloud, with westward winds carrying ash toward Europe where it would disrupt air traffic. Source: Karla Panchuk (2017) CC BY-SA 4.0. Left photograph: Terje Sørgjerd (2010) CC BY-SA 3.0 view source Right photograph: Henrik Thorburn (2010) CC BY 3.0 view source Click the image for more attributions.

References

Bressan, D (2012). Geology Scene Investigation: Death by Volcanic Fire. Visit website

British Geological Survey (n.d.). Eyjafjallajökull eruption, Iceland | April/May 2010. Visit website  

Digital History Project (2011). “Eyewitness Account to Eruption of Mont Pelee Matinique St Pierre Fort de France” By Ellery S. Scott. Visit website 

Rosen, J. (2015). Benchmarks: May 8, 1902: The deadly eruption of Mount Pelée. Visit website

U. S. Geological Survey (1997). Pyroclastic flows. Visit website

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