Glossary

a term developed by psychologist Jean Piaget to describe what occurs when new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas

used to measure what a child has already learned

a behavior genetic research method that involves the comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents

children who are ostracized because they are aggressive, loud, and confrontational

a sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the type of attachment between a child and (typically) their mother

a specific version of a gene

a fluid-filled sac that protects and contains the fetus in the uterus

the stage of development when children are learning to control impulses; coincides with toddlerhood and toileting

the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities

used to measure a student's ability to learn or to determine if a person has potential in a particular program

the belief that environmental characteristics can be attributed to human actions or interventions

a cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge

the rules for behavior are consistent and objective and presented in that way. The parent’s role is to provide guidance while the child learns firsthand how to handle these situations

the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual

a neurological and behavioral disorder in which a person has difficulty staying on task, screening out distractions, and inhibiting behavioral outbursts

reduction in the number of research participants as some drop out over time

the traditional model of parenting in which parents make the rules and children are expected to be obedient

appropriately strict, reasonable, and affectionate. They are willing to negotiate when appropriate

a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior

a developmental disorder affecting communication and behavior

Erikson's second crisis of psychosocial development, during which toddlers strive to gain a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies

children who receive an average number of positive and negative nominations from their peers

fibers that extend from the neurons and transmit electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons

an infant's repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old

the empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior

the approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment

the perspective suggesting that multiple levels of the environment interact with biological potential to influence development

exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation

the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a situation, while disregarding all others

refers to growth and development that occurs from the head down

a DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism

the environmental events and transitions that occur throughout a child’s life, including any socio-historical events

the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis

a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response

the arrangement of information into categories or classes

the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes

an approach that focuses on the process that allows people to know, understand, and think about the world

the stage in which children can think logically about real (concrete) events, have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies, lasts from about 7 to 11 years old

the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added, usually develops during the concrete operational stage

involves looking at media such as old texts, pictures, commercials, lyrics or other materials to explore patterns or themes in culture

a theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, and social worlds

the idea that development is a progressive and cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills

a comparison group that is equivalent to the experimental group, but is not given the independent variable

children who are either strongly liked or strongly disliked by quite a few peers

the relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

research design with the goal of identifying patterns of relationships, but not cause and effect

the outer layers of the brain in humans and other mammals. Most thinking, feeling, and sensing involves the cortex

used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time; may confound age and cohort differences

psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings

the ability to hold out for a larger reward by forgoing a smaller immediate reward

fibers that extend from neurons and receive electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons

a helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs

the outcome or variable that is supposedly affected by the independent variable

research focused on describing an occurrence

the idea that development takes place in unique stages and occurs at specific times or ages

a type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

derived from two separate ova

a research design in which neither the participants nor the researchers know whether an individual is assigned to the experimental group or the control group

a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities

Brofenbrenner's theory that we all belong to many communities and are influenced in the context of multiple environments, also known as ecological systems; organized into five levels of external influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem

Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory stressing the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments, organized into five levels of external influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

the part of the self that helps balance the id and superego by satisfying the id’s desires in a rational way

the child is not able to take the perspective of others, typically observed during the preoperational stage

Erikson's stages of trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair

a multi-celled organism between two and eight weeks after fertilization

the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions, as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed

the study of heritable phenotype changes that do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence; the prefix epi- means above

research designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or programs

a field of psychology that focuses on how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time

the larger contexts of the community, including the values, history, and economy

the group of participants in an experiment who receive the independent variable

research that involves randomly assigning people to different conditions and using hypothesis testing to make inferences about how these conditions affect behavior; the only method that measures cause and effect between variables

designed to test hypotheses in a controlled setting in efforts to explain how certain factors or events produce outcomes; the only research method that measures cause and effect relationships between variables

research that tries to answer the question “why"

decelerated or arrested physical growth (height and weight measurements fall below the third or fifth percentile or a downward change in growth across two major growth percentiles) and is associated with abnormal growth and development

holding a child to adult standards while denying the child's developmental needs

a word-learning process in which new words are rapidly learned by making connections between new words and concepts already known

a group of abnormalities in babies born to mothers who consume alcohol during pregnancy

an unborn human baby from nine weeks after conception until birth

physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin. The word "fine" in this context means "small"

the fourth, and last, stage in Piaget’s theory and lasts from about age 11 to adulthood. Children in the formal operational stage can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations

a male or female reproductive cell

the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be female, male, or genderqueer

a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female

sequences of DNA that control or partially control a number of characteristics

the final stage of psychosexual development when individuals develop sexual interests; begins in adolescence and lasts throughout adulthood

the genetic makeup of an individual

the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children's temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised

physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping. The word "gross" in this context means "big"

individuals tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched

a combination of alleles for a given gene

cultural values, concepts, behaviors and roles that are part of the school experience but are not part of the formal curriculum

a single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought

occurs when parents or siblings visit the school. Children in this state may enjoy special privileges such as going home early or being exempt from certain school rules in the mother’s presence, or it can be difficult if the parent is there to discuss trouble at school with a staff member

having two copies of the same allele for a given gene

specific statements or predictions about the relationship between variables

the part of the self that is biologically-driven, includes our instincts and drives, and wants immediate gratification

the understanding that objects have an identity or qualities that do not change even if the object is altered in some way

something that is manipulated or introduced by the researcher to the experimental group; treatment or intervention

the idea that people forget everything that happened to them before the age of 3

an alternative to Piagetian approaches, a model that seeks to identify the ways individual take in, use, and store information

a process of informing a research participant what to expect during a study, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person's agreement to participate

a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or even return

a pattern of attachment in which an infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion

a panel of experts who review research proposals for any research to be conducted in association with the institution (for example, a university)

a process Freud described where children incorporate values from others into their value set

when a person is unable to mentally reverse a sequence of events

Chomsky's term for the hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn the language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation

the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning middle childhood, during which sexual development and sexual impulses are dormant

behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

the third component of the memory system where information is stored for long periods of time

studying a group of people who may be of the same age and background (cohort), and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time; may confound age and time of measurement effects

the process by which our sense of self develops as we interact with others through various social relationships and incorporate the way those other people view us into our own sense of self

cultural elements such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the global community which impact a community

larger organizational structures such as school, the family, or religion

immediate surrounds including those who have direct, significant contact with the person, such as parents or siblings

the process of cell division

derived from a single ovum

the smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning

the word "motor" refers to the movement of the muscles. Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects

a sudden permanent change in a gene

a coating of fatty tissues around the axon of the neuron

an aspect of brain maturation in which more myelin is formed around the axons of neurons, thereby increasing neural transmission

a sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age

the influences of biology and genetics on behavior

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

a desirable stimulus is removed to decrease a behavior; for example, losing the privilege of playing a desired game or using a desired item

an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior; for example, the car beeping goes away when we click into the seatbelt

children who tend to go unnoticed but are not especially liked or disliked by their peers

nerve cells in the central nervous system, especially in the brain

a tendency to experience negative emotions

brain chemicals that carry information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron

environmental, social, and cultural influences on behavior

the understanding that even if something is out of sight it still exists, develops between 5 and 8 months old

also called naturalistic observation, involves watching and recording the actions of participants

a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences

concepts transformed into variables that can be measured in research

the term used by Piaget to mean the logical rules that children develop with time

the first stage of psychosexual development when infants needs are met primarily through oral gratification

a process in learning a language in which children overgeneralize rules to words where the rule is not applicable

wants to be the child’s friend and focuses on being entertaining and fun

a point on a ranking scale of 0 to 100. The 50th percentile is the midpoint; half of the infants in the population being studied rank higher and half rank lower

the process of interpreting what is sensed

involves being a friend to a child rather than an authority figure. Children are allowed to make their own rules and determine their own activities

the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of 3 to 6 years, when the young child's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone

the individual’s inherited physical characteristics

a basic sound unit of a given language

a description of cognitive development as four distinct stages in children: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal

a developmental milestone that typically occurs at 9 to 12 months of age; the coordination of the index finger and thumb to hold smaller objects; represents a further development of fine motor skills

an organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy to provide oxygen and nutrients to the fetus

focuses primarily on making sure that the child is obedient and that the parent has full control of the child

children who gain popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others

children who are popular because they are nice and have good social skills

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

an undesirable stimulus is added to decrease a behavior; for example, spanking or receiving a speeding ticket

a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior; for example, stickers on a behavior chart or words of encouragement

the area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control

the death of a woman while pregnant or within 1 year of the end of a pregnancy from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy

an aspect of prenatal care focused on pursuing additional detailed information once a particular problem has been found

an aspect of prenatal care focused on finding problems among a large population with affordable and noninvasive methods

the stage in which children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play, lasts approximately 2 to 7 years old

the first two stages of Piaget's sensorimotor intelligence which involve the infant's responses to its own body

speech that a child says aloud, but which is not meant to be part of communication with anyone else

development that occurs from the center or core of the body in an outward direction

the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die

the perspective that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people's awareness and control

Freud's oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages

the theory that emphasizes the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development

theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants, who answer open-ended questions

scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms

involves numerical data that are quantified using statistics to understand and report what has been studied

the interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us

the understanding that changing one quality of an object can be compensated for by changes in another quality of that object

the inborn, behavioral patterns that develop during uterine life and are fully present at birth. These are involuntary movements (not learned) or actions that are essential for a newborn's survival immediately after birth and include: sucking, swallowing, blinking, urinating, hiccuping, and defecating

when something yields consistent results

the strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information; dictates which methods are used and how

the ability to recognize a potential behavior and stop the initiation of an undesired behavior

objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition, typically observed during the concrete operational stage

a time in which the child is contemplative, quiet, or prayerful. It is often only a very brief part of the day

a process in which adults or capable peers model or demonstrate how to solve a problem, and then step back, offering support as needed

a plot or mathematical diagram consisting of data points that represent two variables

an existing framework for an object or concept

stages 3 and 4 of Piaget's sensorimotor intelligence which involves the infant's responses to objects and people

archival research, involves analyzing information that has already been collected or examining documents or media to uncover attitudes, practices or preferences

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of their caregiver

a parental presence that gives children a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings

certain groups of individuals may tend to drop out more frequently resulting in the remaining participants longer being representative of the whole population

a person's realization that they are a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people

the idea of who we are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and feel

the tendency to act in a way that makes what you predict will happen come true

the interaction of information with the sensory receptors

Piaget's term for the way infants think (by using their senses and motor skills) during the first stage of cognitive development

the stage in which children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior, lasts from birth to about 2 years old

the first component of the memory system where information comes in through the 5 senses and is processed if the mind believes that the information is important

fear or distress caused by the departure of familiar significant others; most obvious between 9-14 months

combines aspects of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, but also adding new cohorts at different times of measurement; allows for analyses to consider effects of age, cohort, time of measurement, and socio-historical change

a smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth

learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model

Vygotsky's theory that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

fear is often associated with the presence of strangers where an infant expresses concern or a look of fear while clinging to a familiar person

state in which the child is playful, energetic, excited, and expresses personal opinions, feelings, and beliefs

this state is one in which the student focuses on a task or tries to stay focused on a task, is passive, compliant, and often frustrated

the part of the self that acts as our conscience, telling us how we should behave

asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects

the intersection between the axon of one neuron to the dendrites of another neuron

the selective elimination of non-essential synapses and the strengthening of important neural connections

the tendency to think that if two events occur simultaneously, one caused the other

pays a lot of attention to expert advice on parenting and believes that as long as all of the steps are followed, the parent can rear a perfect child

inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation, typically measured by the person's responses to the environment

any agent which can cause a birth defect

consist of actions (stage 5) and ideas (stage 6) where infants become more creative in their thinking

the process by which organisms change over time so that those with genes and behaviors better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment will die off

Garner's theory that there are many kinds of intelligence. The modern version of the theory recognizes 9 forms of intelligence

explains how children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own, develops during the preoperational stage

a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that can be used to make predictions about future observations

a failure in understanding cause and effect relationships which happens when a child reasons from specific to specific; drawing a relationship between two separate events that are otherwise unrelated

the great, but temporary increase in the number of dendrites that develop in an infant's brain during the first two years of life

Sternberg's theory that recognizes three forms of intelligence: academic, creative, and practical

Erikson's first crisis of psychosocial development, during which infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their needs (food, comfort, attention) are met

a behavior genetic research method that involves a comparison of the similarity of identical (monozygotic; MZ) and fraternal (dizygotic; DZ) twins

parents who are disengaged from their children, do not make demands on their children, and are non-responsive

when something yields accurate results

factors that change in value

children who are excluded because they are shy and withdrawn

the second component of the memory system where information that has been processed in sensory memory goes. Working memory includes all the information that you are consciously aware of

the difference between what a learner can do without help, and what they can do with help

the range of material that a child is ready to learn if proper support and guidance are given from either a peer who understands the material or by an adult

a one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge